Religions - Old Testament: a summary between myth and history
Published online (September 2023).
Source: Wikipedia.
Above: in yellow, the fertile crescent (image: annibalepinotti.it).
Below: a map of Canaan.
| Old Testament Or the ancient covenant of God with the Jews. The Jews accept Yahweh as the only god and follow his laws (sacred texts). Yahweh blesses the Jews and gives them the Land of Israel. |
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| Pentateuch | |
| In sacred texts | In history |
| 14 billion
years ago: the Big
Bang. 4 billion years ago: life begins on Earth. 70.000 years ago: the Homo sapiens species leaves Africa and colonizes the world. 12.000-7000 BC: throughout the Fertile Crescent, the hunter-gatherer culture disappears and the cultivation of wheat and the domestication of animals begin. Man becomes sedentary. Religion is limited to an evolution of the cult of the dead: the shamanism. |
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| Genesis: God creates the world in 6 days, then rests on the seventh day, blesses and sanctifies it. He creates with a verbal command and names the elements of the cosmos as he creates them. Then God forms the first man from dust, places him in the Garden of Eden (in Mesopotamia) and breathes his divine breath into it, making him become a living being, Adam. Adam gives names to the animals, thus affirming his authority within the sphere of divine creation, and God creates the first woman, Eve, molding her from the man's rib. | 3500 BC: the first civilization,
the Sumerians, is born in lower Mesopotamia (they will be followed by
Akkadians and Babylonians, empires that increasingly expand along the
two rivers). They
invent writing. They
are polytheistic, they have 3600 gods, headed by Enlil.
These parts of Genesis find reference in Mesopotamian myths modified in a monotheistic way. In these tales, the gods, made of flesh and blood, live on a plain (edin), where man is created and used to cultivate the garden that nourishes the gods. Adam and Eve are a collection of various figures. Adam is Enkidu, Adapa/Adaba and Dumuzi/Tammuz. Eve is Shamhat and Inanna/Ishtar. The concept of the tree of life started in Central Asia and then spread throughout the world. Enuma Elish (circa 1100 BC), common points: chaotic waters before everything is created; fixed dome-shaped firmament dividing the waters from the Earth; creation of man; construction of a temple for the god (in Genesis this temple is the entire cosmos). Atrahasis (circa 1800-1700 BC), common points: divine garden; role of the first man in the garden; creation of man from a mixture of earth and divine substance; progressive clarification of man's relationship with God and animals; Enlil sends the flood, but the god Enki warns Atrahasis to build an ark. Enki and Ninhursag (circa 2000 BC?): the gods Enki and Ninhursag love each other in the garden. A daughter is born. The goddess Ninhursag leaves to deal with living things. Enki misses her. He mistakes his daughter for her mother and gets her pregnant. He mistakes his niece and gets her pregnant. He mistakes his great-niece and gets her pregnant. Then he's fed up, leaves her and leaves. The great-granddaughter asks Ninhursag for help, who tells her to remove Enki's seed from her belly and plant it in the garden. Eight plants grow from the seed. Enki returns, sees them and eats them. Eight parts of Enki, including the rib, become pregnant. He cannot give birth, and Ninhursag comes to help. He holds Enki in her lap and extracts a new god from every part. Ninti, the goddess of fertility, is born from the rib. Debate between sheep and grain (circa 2000 BC): personifications of herding and agriculture argue over which of the two is more important. They bring gifts to Enlil, from whom they ask for a verdict. Enlil proclaims agriculture victorious, for it does not need herding, but herding needs agriculture. And so on. There are seven debates. Inanna Prefers the Farmer (circa 1800-1500 BC): the shepherd god Dumuzi and the farmer god Enkimdu court the goddess Inanna. At first, Inanna prefers the farmer, but then she sees that for every gift from Enkimdu, she receives a better one from Dumuzi. In the end, she chooses Dumuzi. Eridu Genesis (circa 1600 BC): the gods An, Enlil, Enki and Ninhursag create man and suitable conditions for animals to live and proliferate. The gods decide not to save man from an imminent flood. In a later Akkadian version, Ea (= Enki), the god of waters, warns the Akkadian hero Atrahasis and gives him instructions to build an ark. Epic of Gilgamesh (circa 2100-1400 BC): the goddess Aruru creates the primitive Enkidu on the plain, who lives alone and protects animals. Then he meets Shamhat and they love each other. Shamhat tells him to go and meet King Gilgamesh. The primitive and the king become friends. After many adventures, Enkidu dies. Gilgamesh is now afraid of death and seeks out Utnapishtim, an immortal friend, to whom he asks how he became one. Utnapishtim explains that, a long time ago, the gods sent the flood, but the god Ea warned him secretly, and he saved himself by building an ark. It rained for 6 days, then the ark ran aground on a mountain and he sent out a raven, a dove and a swallow to verify that there was land. After the flood, Enlil saw that there were still men and, furious, he looked for the spy. Ea convinced Enlil of his good intentions, and the god blessed Utnapishtim with immortality. Gilgamesh learns of a plant that makes you young. He collects it, but near a pond, a snake steals it from him, rejuvenating itself. Then he manages to meet Enkidu in the underworld and asks him about the afterlife. Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta (circa 2000 BC): Enmerkar is building for the goddess Inanna a great ziggurat at Eridu. He plans to subjugate Aratta (an imaginary region northeast of Mesopotamia) and ask them for tribute for the construction. Inanna tells Enmerkar to send a messenger to the lord of Aratta to demand his submission. Enmerkar sends a messenger and prays the god Enki to turn the many languages between Eridu and Aratta into one, to facilitate the operation. |
| Genesis: God commands Adam and Eve to feed freely on the fruit of all trees, except that of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Eve, tempted by the snake, disobeys, eating the fruit of the forbidden tree. She then convinces Adam to do the same. They immediately realize they are naked. Sin is followed by an investigation by God, who retraces the steps opposite to those of sin: first the man, then the woman, then the snake. Adam blames Eve, Eve blames the snake. God first condemns the snake, then the woman, then the man: now the earth becomes their enemy. Neither Adam nor Eve are cursed by God, who reserves words of curse only for the snake and the earth. The harshest consequence of sin, beyond fatigue, pain and difficulty, is death: sin produces a rupture in the relationship with God, and physical death sanctions this rupture. Despite everything, God gives them clothing: it is a saving gesture from God, who helps them by restoring their dignity. | |
| Genesis: Adam and Eve have as children Cain, Abel, Seth and an unspecified number of sons and daughters. Cain is a farmer, and Abel is a shepherd. The brothers bring offerings to God, who always prefers Abel's gifts to those of Cain. Out of envy, Cain kills Abel. God condemns Cain to wander in exile for the rest of his life. Seth is the one from whom the generational line takes over in place of Abel. Adam, through Seth, is followed by ten generations which include as many patriarchs. Including Noah. | |
| Genesis: God sees that the Earth
is full of violence and corruption, and decides to destroy it. But he finds a righteous
man, Noah. He
warns him that he will send the flood and tells him to build an ark
with animals. It
rains for 40/150 days (depending on the source). Even the highest mountains
remain covered in water. Finally, God causes the
waters to subside, and the ark runs aground on the mountains of Ararat.
Noah
sends out a raven and/or a dove (depending on the source) to verify
that there is land. Noah will have Shem, Ham and Japheth as his sons. Their lineages generate the Semites (Middle East), the Hamites (Africa) and the Japhetites (Europe). Ten generations follow which include as many patriarchs. Including Abraham. |
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| Genesis: sometime after the flood, the human race consists of a single people, speaking a single language and settling in Mesopotamia. They want to build a city and a tower that reaches to the sky. God sees the tower and the city, and says: "Look, they're united now, and this is just the beginning, there's nothing they won't be able to do". So he confuses their languages and spreads them throughout the world. This myth serves to explain why the people of the world speak different languages. In the Bible, the phrase "Tower of Babel" does not appear, the Hebrew name of Babel is the same as Babylon, and is explained to derive from balal, "to confuse". | |
| 3150 BC: the second great civilization, the Egyptians. They are polytheistic, having more than 1500 gods, headed by Amun-Ra (previously two separate gods). | |
| Genesis: Abraham
is a Sumerian born in Ur. One day God appears to him,
telling him to leave Ur and go to the region of Canaan. He promises him that that
land will be his and his descendants. Abraham has
Isaac as his son, who will have Jacob as his son. |
2500/1800 BC: first mention of Canaan as a geographical entity, but the region is in practice populated by small city-states, the culture is a branch of the Sumerian one, the area is a crossroads between Egypt, Arab nomads, Mesopotamia and maritime trade with north. The periods of Canaan are defined by the name of the occupying empires: Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek and Roman. The Canaanites are polytheistic, they have about 50 gods, headed by El. The term El is used as a suffix to indicate each god and as the name of the absolute god and head of the other gods. The derivation of the name El from Enlil is doubtful, but there is certainty about the derivation of Allah from El. |
| Genesis: Jacob (later called Israel) and his people (Jews or Israelites) are now well established in Canaan (in Hebron, 30 km south of Jerusalem). Jacob had 12 sons, who represent the 12 progenitors of the 12 tribes of Israel. But there is a famine. Joseph, one of Jacob's sons, works in Egypt at the highest levels and is the pharaoh's confidant. Joseph asks the pharaoh if, given the famine, Egypt can host the Jews. The pharaoh grants them a piece of land in the north of the country. | 1500 BC: Egyptian rule of Canaan begins. |
| 1390/1350 BC: first mention of the name Yahweh (in Egyptian writings). He emerges in the tradition as a divine warrior. In the most ancient biblical texts, he has the typical characteristics of the gods of war and weather. From the beginning, the cult was associated with the nomads of the Edom region (southern Canaan, on the border with the Arabian desert). | |
| Exodus: for centuries everything goes well. Then a new pharaoh takes the throne, who has no interest in continuing the agreement with Joseph. Indeed, he is worried by the presence of the Jews. There are too many of them, they are powerful, and there is a risk of revolt. The pharaoh decides to persecute them. Moses is born, the fourth generation after Jacob. God appears to Moses, and tells him to free the Jews from the Egyptian yoke, to leave Egypt and to bring his people back to the region of Canaan. He promises him that that land will belong to the Jews. Moses asks the pharaoh to release the Jews so they can leave the country. The pharaoh refuses, and God unleashes the ten plagues. The Jews leave Egypt and camp by the sea (Gulf of Suez). The pharaoh changes his mind and reaches them with his army. God, through Moses, opens the waters and allows the Jews to cross the sea, but the waters close again as the Egyptians pass, killing them. After three months, the Jews find themselves near Mt Sinai, where God appears. God dictates to Moses 10 commandments and 5 books (Pentateuch for Christians, Torah for Jews): Genesis (see above), Exodus (see above), Leviticus (613 religious and social laws for priests), Numbers (the account of the sojourn in the wilderness) and Deuteronomy (a summary of Leviticus and Numbers). For 40 years, Moses wanders with the Jews in the desert. This is God's punishment for several mistakes committed by Moses. God only allows Moses to see Canaan from a mountain before he dies. | Even among those who look
to the myth for a historical foundation, there is no agreement. Some say that the stay in
Egypt lasts 200 years, others 400. Some say it is Pharaoh Ramses II,
others Ramses III. Outside of
the Bible, there is no record of the exodus. One
hypothesis is that, at various stages, groups of Egyptians fled the
regime of the pharaohs and settled in Canaan. Their stories slowly became
unified into myth. Another
hypothesis is that the myth reflects the Egyptian regime in Canaan and
that the location of the events was moved from Canaan to Egypt. Another
hypothesis is that the myth is based on the Hyksos, a Canaanite people
who occupied northeast Egypt and was eventually driven out (1650-1550
BC). Other historians think that the whole story is a
fabrication. 1200 BC: Egyptian rule of Canaan ends. |
| Prophets,
Writings and Deuterocanonics (there is scant to no evidence that any of these prophets actually existed) |
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| Joshua: story of
the violent conquest of the land of Canaan by the 12 tribes led by
Joshua. It refers to 1200-1150 BC. |
1200 BC: first mention of the name Israel (as an ethnic group, in Egyptian writings). The Israelites - here synonymous with Jews - do not come from outside, they are Canaanites, from whom they are distinguished by the cult of Yahweh. While the Canaanites recognize the supremacy of El but worship the other gods indiscriminately, the Jews recognize the existence of the Canaanite gods but worship mainly (but not only) Yahweh. |
| 1200-1150 BC: Late Bronze Age collapse. It affects the area between Greece, Türkiye, North Africa and the Middle East. The causes include climate disasters, invasions, economic, political and social shocks, also due to the transition from bronze to iron and therefore to military and tactical changes. We return to a metaphorical Middle Ages. In Canaan, city-states disappear. | |
| Judges: history of the 12 tribes in Canaan and the Judges, charismatic occasional military leaders. It refers to 1150-1050 BC. | 1150-1030 BC: with the Iron Age, the civilization of Canaan is reborn as a different one. The previous Canaanite culture is absorbed by Philistines, Israelites and Phoenicians. The Israelites keep themselves separate through religion, a ban on inter-ethnic marriage, and an emphasis on family history and genealogy. Their community quickly arises next to the old and decadent Canaan, in the area between Samaria and Jerusalem. |
| Samuel: Samuel's prophetic ministry; Kingdom of Saul; David's youth; Kingdom of David. It refers to 1100-965 BC. | 1030 BC: the
Kingdom of Judah and Israel is born, the united kingdom of the Jews (12
tribes). The
capital is Jerusalem. Three kings follow one
another: Saul, David and Solomon. There
is no
historical evidence of the existence of Saul and Solomon, David is
thought to have existed but not much else is known. |
| Kings: death of David; Solomon; split of the Kingdom of Israel from the Kingdom of Judah; ministry of the prophet Elijah (in the north); various kings of Israel and Judah. It refers to 965-850 BC. | 933 BC: the kingdom is divided into the Kingdom of Israel (10 tribes, with Samaria as capital) and the Kingdom of Judah (2 tribes, with Jerusalem as capital). |
| Kings: ministry
of the prophets Elisha (in the north) and Isaiah (in the south); various kings of Israel and
Judah. It
refers to 850-587 BC. Joel: calamity on Judah, day of the Lord, defeat of enemies, salvation of Judah. It refers to 830-800 BC. Micah: exhortation against social injustice, idolatry, announcement of punishment, hope in a Messiah. It refers to 830-800 BC. Amos: invitation to prayer, threat of punishment, exhortation to hope. It refers to 800-750 BC. Jonah: Jonah's preaching in Nineveh, invitation to conversion for all peoples, not just the Jews. It refers to 800-750 BC. |
826 BC: the First Temple is built in Jerusalem. In the period 800-500 BC there's a long process of religious transformation: the Jews begin to condemn the cult of the goddess Asherah, of the god Baal, the cult of the sun, and other cults belonging to the ancient Canaanite religion; the characteristics of Asherah, Baal and El are absorbed by the concept of Yahweh; a conflict begins between the Jews who say that Yahweh is the only god that should be worshiped, and the Jews who continue to worship both Yahweh and the other gods. The events following the return from Babylon (see below) force the conflict to close. |
| Kings: destruction and
deportation of the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. It refers to 850-587 BC. Hosea: God's love for Israel, who however is unfaithful with idolatry. Announcement of the punishment for Ephraim-Samaria (Assyrian conquest). It refers to 800-750 BC. Isaiah: Proto-Isaiah: trust in God, transcendent and faithful. Deutero-Isaiah: exhortation to the oppressed people; the "Servant of Yahweh". Trito-Isaiah: against idolatry; conversion of the pagan nations. It refers to 736-704 BC. Nahum: prophesies the conquest and destruction of Nineveh, the capital of the Assyrians, threat to the Jews. It refers to 700-650 BC. Zephaniah: exhortation to the Jews, judgment of the nations, promise of restoration. It refers to around 650 BC. Habakkuk: exhortation to be faithful to God despite adversity. It refers to 650-600 BC. |
720 BC: the Kingdom of Israel is destroyed by the Assyrians, who deport 27.000 people. It is not known exactly what happens to them, but most will never return. It is thought that over the generations they have merged with the local culture. |
| Kings: destruction and
deportation of the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. It refers to 850-587 BC. Jeremiah: oracles exhorting submission to Babylon. It refers to 627-585 BC. Ezekiel: God is always with his people even if they are in exile in Babylon, and in the end, Israel will be victorious, and Jerusalem and the temple will be rebuilt. It refers to 593-571 BC. Obadiah: oracles against Edom, final revenge of the Israelites. It refers to 587-586 BC. Daniel: events of the Jewish sage Daniel who remains faithful to God, apocalyptic visions predicting the Jewish Messiah and the kingdom of God. It refers to 587-538 BC. |
587 BC: the Kingdom of Judah is destroyed by the Babylonians, who deport 20.000 people. Jerusalem is destroyed, the First Temple is destroyed (the opera Nabucco - from the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar - and the aria Va, pensiero talk about this). The Jews remain in Babylon for 50 years (according to the Bible, 70), but for all they know, it could be forever. The Jews in Babylon are neither slaves nor prisoners (many subsequent generations will decide to stay there), but this period is described as harrowing and traumatic. Strangers in a foreign land, they don't speak the language, they don't know habits and customs. They become convinced that this is God's punishment for worshiping not only Yahweh but other gods as well. |
| Ezra: return from Babylonian
exile, rebuilding the temple; reformative activity of
Ezra in Jerusalem, religious reform. It refers to 538-515 BC
(and from 398 BC?). Haggai: exhortation to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, hope in a Messiah. It refers to 520 BC. Zechariah: Proto-Zechariah: exhortation to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, ideal priest-and-prince government, hope in a Messiah (in Zerubbabel). Deutero-Zechariah: exaltation of the Messiah King, the sacrifice of a "pierced" person from which salvation derives (referring to the killing of Onias III or Simon Maccabeus). It refers to around 500 BC. Malachi: exhortation to worship God, against infidelity. It refers to around 450 BC. Nehemiah: Nehemiah's reforming activity in Jerusalem, reconstruction of the walls. It refers to 445-432 BC. |
538 BC: the Persians defeat the Babylonians, occupy Babylon and, to keep them as loyal vassals, leave the Jews free to return to Judea, now under Persian control. The return takes place, in waves, over a century. Only a small part returns (still more than 50.000), most move to other parts of the Middle East. In 516 the Second Temple in Jerusalem is built. Tensions return between the convinced monotheistic Jews (those who returned from Babylon, who claim descent from Moses), and the occasional polytheistic Jews (those who remained in Judea, who claim descent from Abraham). The Jews returning from Babylon accumulated diplomatic contacts with the Persians, and soon assume authoritative positions. The first thing they make clear is that one should not even talk about gods and cults outside of Yahweh. It is in these years that the final version of the Pentateuch is put together, rearranging old and new myths, old and new laws, to give legitimacy to the rigorous religious vision of the Jews returned from Babylon. From the Persian religion Zoroastrianism, Jews import many concepts: messiah, free will, judgement after death, heaven and hell, angels and demons. |
| Maccabees: fight for the independence of Judea by the Maccabee brothers (Judah, Jonathan, Simon) against the Seleucid kings. It refers to 332-134 BC. | 332 BC: the Macedonians (Greeks) defeat the Persians and take control of Judea. Two Macedonian dynasties follow one another: the Ptolemaics (305-198 BC) and the Seleucids (198-141 BC). |
| 141-64 BC: reign of the Maccabees, a movement of Jewish rebels against the Seleucids. In 64 BC, the Republic of Rome occupies Judea but keeps local kings and priests as a puppet government. | |
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