The majority of historians believe Muhammad existed as a historical figure. The main sources on Muhammad's life are the Quran and accounts based on oral traditions known as sira and hadith. Determining what elements of early narratives about Muhammad's life are true and which are not is extremely difficult.


Religion in early pre-Islamic Arabia was diverse. Although polytheism was prevalent, monotheism was still a notable practice among some of the region's inhabitants, such as the Jewish tribes. In addition to Arabian paganism, other religious practices in the region included 1) those of the ancient Semitic religions (Canaanites and Sumerians, see Old Testament), 2) the Abrahamic religions (see Old Testament), of which the emerging Islam would become a part, 3) the Iranian religions (Zoroastrianism, see Old Testament), 4) the Gnostic religions and 5) the Indian religions, which were mostly adhered to by non-native merchants and other travellers.
Some scholars postulate that in pre-Islamic Arabia, including in Mecca, Allah was considered to be a deity, possibly a creator deity or a supreme deity in a polytheistic pantheon. The word Allah (from the Arabic al-ilah meaning "the god") may have been used as a title rather than a name. The concept of Allah may have been vague in the Meccan religion.
By the late 500s, Judaism is the dominant religion in Yemen, while Christianity took root in the Persian Gulf area. In Arabia, many are reluctant to convert to a foreign faith, but those faiths provide intellectual and spiritual reference points, and the old pagan vocabulary of Arabic begins to be replaced by Jewish and Christian words from Aramaic everywhere, including Mecca. While Arabian polytheism gets marginalized in the region, there is an increasing need for a monotheistic religion of the Arabs, different from Judaism and Christianity.
The criticism of "polytheists" contained in the Quran is in fact a hyperbolic reference to other monotheists, in particular the Arab Jews and Arab Christians, whose religious beliefs are considered imperfect. Yet, the god Muhammad prays to in the cave is the same of the Old Testament, in its purest version and with the same history, just not necessarily with the same corollary of rules and practices of Jews and Christians, and Allah is just the Arab word for God.


He was born in 570 AD in Mecca.

By 576 AD (age 6), he remains an orphan of both parents, his grandfather and his uncle take care of him.

In 595 AD (age 25), his business reputation (leading caravans to Syria) catches the attention of his 40-year-old distant relative Khadijah, a wealthy businesswoman. Muhammad accepts her offer of marriage and remains monogamous with her until her death. After her death, he will have twelve wives, up to ten at the same time, all between 9 and 40 years old. The financial security that he enjoys from Khadija gives him plenty of free time to spend in solitude in the cave of Hira, where he periodically secludes himself for several nights to pray to Allah.

In 610 AD (age 40), Muhammad reports being visited by the angel Gabriel in the cave. The angel shows him a cloth with Quranic verses on it and instructs him to read. Muhammad confesses his illiteracy, Gabriel chokes him and repeats the command. This sequence takes place three times, then Gabriel recites the verses for Muhammad to memorize them. Shocked by the experience and convinced that he has been attacked by a demon, Muhammad runs to his wife for comfort. Khadija is sure that it was an authentic revelation and not a demon. Gabriel's revelations continue, but also cease for long periods, during which Muhammad threatens to commit suicide out of desperation but is immediately reassured by the reappearance of the angel. His moments of enlightenment are accompanied by convulsions, heavy sweating, blackouts, tremors and dizziness, and while the rest of the family gradually learns of these revelations, opinion is divided between those who think he is in the grip of a demon or a spell, and who thinks that he has really become a prophet.

In 613 AD Muhammad starts preaching the revelations publicly. At each new revelation, his followers repeat after him and memorize it, and the literate ones record it in writing. He also introduces rituals to his group which include prayer with physical postures that embody complete surrender to God (hence the terms islam, meaning "submission", and muslim, meaning "one who submits"). Initially, he has no serious opposition from the inhabitants of Mecca, who are indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he starts to attack their beliefs, tensions arise.

In 619 AD, Muhammad faces a period of sorrow. His wife, Khadija, a crucial source of his financial and emotional support, dies. In the same year, his uncle and guardian also dies. As resistance to his proselytism in Mecca grows, Muhammad begins to limit his efforts to non-Meccans who attend fairs or make pilgrimages. Among these, in 620 AD he meets six members of an Arab tribe from Medina. At the time, the situation in Medina was as follows: two Arab tribes had moved to live side by side with the Jewish tribes and clans that constituted the majority of the population; the Arab tribes had been fighting each other for a hundred years, and in Medina each of them had tried to court the support of the Jewish tribes, which occasionally led to infighting among the latter. The six members that Muhammad meets had a history of raiding the Jews, who in turn had warned them that a prophet would come, and with his help, the Jews would obliterate them. Upon hearing Muhammad's religious message, the six men say to each other: "This is the prophet of whom the Jews warned us, don't let them get to him before us!". So they embrace Islam, return to Medina and share their encounter, hoping that other people from the two Arab tribes will join Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader. This will also end the conflict between the two tribes. In 621 AD, Muhammad meets with seven new converts from Medina. In 622 AD, he meets with seventy-five new converts from Medina. Given the hostile climate in the Meccan community, he asks them to protect him in Medina as they would protect their wives and children. They concur and give him their oath. Paradise is the promise to them in exchange for their loyalty. Subsequently, Muhammad calls upon the Meccan Muslims to relocate to Medina.

As of 623 AD, Muhammad has a piece of land and a house in Medina, the first Muslim building and mosque, which he also uses to host public meetings and to help the poor with food and care. Christians and Jews are also allowed to participate in community worship at the mosque. Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seize the properties of Muslim emigrants. War then breaks out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad delivers Quranic verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans, and he receives revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusts to the new direction, and his companions praying with him follow his lead. Also, under his order, the Muslims start capturing Meccan caravans and making prisoners to ask for ransom. A series of events follows which sees Muhammad go to war with Mecca and the Jewish tribes, becoming an increasingly stronger leader, and justifying his decisions with appropriate revelations. Invasions, looting, ransoms, slaves, forced conversions, seized land and beheadings become countless, but however aggressive the Muslims are, their aggressivity always starts as self-defense, and however harsh the Muslim's rule is, it's still based on actual laws, on a presumed God's will, it's not blind violence. This will become important when talking about jihad, lower down.


Talking about revelations: Gabriel instructs Muhammad to attack the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza; also on that occasion, Muhammad approves of the execution of 600-900 men of Banu Qurayza because it aligns with God's judgement; in a dream, Muhammad learns that God will send 1000 angels to help Muslim fight Meccans at Badr; at Uhud, a revelation allows Muslim men to have up to four wives each, marking the beginning of polygyny in Islam. Historians (Watt, Bell, Lewis, Welch) dismiss the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, they point out that his readiness to endure hardship for his cause shows his sincerity and that he was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation. However, Watt says that Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation.

In 630 AD, Muhammad marches on Mecca with 10.000 Muslim converts and, with minimal casualties, he seizes control of the city. He removes the 360 pagan idols from the Kaaba (the famous black square building, which before Muhammad's occupation was dedicated to the god Hubal) and turns it into the temple of Allah.

In 632 AD he dies in Medina. Even from his deathbed, Muhammad continued issuing military orders and cursing Christians and Jews. According to traditional accounts, his death was due to poisoning, while historian Alfred T. Welch speculates that it was caused by Medinan fever.


Since the early years, Muhammad's companions had been recording his daily revelations in writing on various materials, including leaves and bones. Muhammad never learned to read and write, but his illiteracy was taken as a sign of the genuineness of his prophethood. At his death, the caliph Abu Bakr orders the companions to gather and put together the recordings. The caliph Uthman then establishes a standard version, which is generally considered the archetype of the Quran known today.

The Quran is organized into 114 chapters called surah (plural suwar) and it assumes the reader's familiarity with the major narratives recounted in the Bible. Overall, the Quranic verses contain general exhortations regarding right and wrong, while historical events are only used to outline general moral lessons. That said, basic Islamic beliefs, including the existence of God and the resurrection, narratives of the early prophets, ethical and legal subjects, historical events of Muhammad's time, charity and prayer, all can be found in the Quran. Chapters are not arranged in chronological order but in order of decreasing size. The Quranic text seems to have no beginning, middle, or end. The textual arrangement is sometimes considered to exhibit a lack of continuity, absence of any chronological or thematic order, and repetitiousness. It has been observed (Sells and Brown) that this seeming disorganization is a literary device capable of delivering profound effects, as if the intensity of the prophetic message were shattering the vehicle of human language in which it was being communicated. Sells also addresses the repetitiveness of the Quran, seeing this, too, as a literary device.

The Quran attributes its relationship with the Torah and the Gospels to their unique origin, saying all of them have been revealed by the one God. Even if Muhammad couldn't read, he had learned about Judaism and Christianity through oral tradition. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God. Muhammad is just the last one, and as such, he wants to point out the mistakes of his predecessors. In total, the Quran contains references to more than fifty people also found in the Bible. Of course, there's plenty of minor and major differences. For example:
- In Eden, it is God who indicates the names of plants and animals to Adam, Adam does not choose them. Eve has no name, she is just Adam's companion. There is no snake, the two are deceived by Satan.
- In the story of Cain and Abel, the two have no name, and God sends a raven to dig Abel's grave.
- Noah's story focuses on his attempt to convince his fellow countrymen to behave properly rather than on the flood. Instead of Ararat, there is Mount Judi, a specific mountain in the Ararat range.
- In the Bible, Aaron helps make the golden calf. In the Quran, Aaron is a messenger of God who opposes the idea of the golden calf and another person leads the Israelites to worship the false idol.
- Jesus never expected to be interpreted as divine, he just taught monotheism, and he didn't die on the cross, he was raised to Heaven.

Women are important characters in the stories and morals taught in the Quran. Most women are depicted as mothers or wives. In some respects they maintain a certain autonomy from men. For example, the Quran describes women who converted to Islam before their husbands, or women who took an independent oath of allegiance to Muhammad. In patriarchal societies, these stories were subject to manipulation, and how future generations were to interpret the role of women was also dictated. In the wake of modernity and the rise of Islamic feminism, many scholars are reconsidering the original text and reimagining women in Islam.


The following is a list of 75 good manners from the Quran, from the website of New England Muslims:
Don't lie (22:30); Don't spy (49:12); Don't exult (28:76); Don't insult (49:11); Don't waste (17:26); Feed the poor (22:36); Don't backbite (49:12); Keep your oaths (5:89); Don't take bribes (27:36); Honour your treaties (9:4); Restrain your anger (3:134); Don't spread gossip (24:15); Think good of others (24:12); Be good to guests (51:24-27); Don't harm believers (33:58); Don't be rude to parents (17:23); Turn away from ill speech (23:3); Don't make fun of others (49:11); Walk in a humble manner (25:63); Respond to evil with good (41:34); Don't say what you don't do (62:2); Keep your trusts and promises (23:8); Don't insult others' false gods (6:108); Don't deceive people in trade (6:152); Don't take items without right (3:162); Don't ask unnecessary questions (5:101); Don't be miserly nor extravagant (25:67); Don't call others with bad names (49:11); Don't claim yourselves to be pure (53:32); Speak nicely, even to the ignorant (25:63); Don't ask for repayment for favours (76:9); Make room for others at gatherings (58:11); If enemy wants peace, then accept it (8:61); Return a greeting in a better manner (4:86); Don't remind others of your favours (2:264); Make peace between fighting groups (49:9); Lower your voice and talk moderately (31:19); Don't let hatred cause you to be unjust (6:108); Don't ask too many favours from people (2:273); Greet people when entering their home (24:27); Be just, even against yourself and relatives (4:135); Speak gently, even to leaders of disbelief (20:44); Don't criticize small contributions of others (9:79); Don't call the Prophet how you call others (24:63); Try to make peace between husband and wife (4:128); Don't call the Prophet from outside his rooms (49:4); Oppression and corruption are worse than killing (2:217); Preach to others in a good and wise manner (16:125); Don't accuse others of immorality without proof (24:4); Consider wives of the Prophet like your mothers (33:6); Don't raise your voice above that of the Prophet's (49:2); Don't call someone a disbeliever without knowing (4:94); Seek permission before entering someone's room (24:59); Know your enemies can become your close friends (41:34); Don't wrongly consume the wealth of the vulnerable (4:29); Don't turn your cheek away from people in arrogance (31:18); Forgive others, as you would like Allah to forgive you (24:22); Seek Prophet's permission when leaving his gathering (24:62); Don't hold secret meetings for sin, rather do so for piety (58:9); Don't order others to do good while forgetting it yourself (2:44); Be patient with your teacher and follow his instructions (18:67-69); Don't frown, turn away or neglect those who come to you (80:10); If unable to help a needy person, at least speak nice words (17:28); Be lenient to those under you, and consult them in matters (3:159); Verify information from a dubious source before acting upon it (49:6); Don't remain in the Prophet's home unnecessarily after a meal (33:53); Those who can should continue to spend on those less fortunate (24:22); Don't enter homes without permission and return if refused entry (24:27-28); Don't sit with those who mock religion until they change the subject (4:140); Say it's not appropriate to talk of slander when it's mentioned to you (24:16); If required to ask the Prophet's wives, then do so through a hijab (meaning curtain, not piece of clothing; this gave rise to lots of misunderstandings...) (33:53); Divorce in an amicable manner instead of keeping and harming your wife (2:231); Punish in an equivalent manner to how you were harmed or be patient (16:126); Differences in color and language are signs of Allah, not means of superiority (49:13); Don't take women by force, nor take back bridal gift without a valid reason and live with them in kindness (4:19).


The sword verse (fifth verse of the ninth surah) is a Quranic verse widely cited by critics of Islam to suggest the faith promotes violence against pagans (polytheists). The verse reads: "But once the Sacred Months have passed, kill the polytheists wherever you find them, capture them, besiege them, and lie in wait for them on every way. But if they repent, perform prayers, and pay alms-tax, then set them free. Indeed, Allah is All-Forgiving, Most Merciful".
The Quran only justifies war as self-defense of the Muslims, but the sword verse has historically been interpreted to renounce other verses and, out of the blue, justify offensive war against unbelievers and forced conversions of all pagans no matter what.
However, the following verse, usually not cited by those same critics, explains the meaning of the previous one: "And if anyone from the polytheists asks for your protection, grant it to them so they may hear the Word of Allah, then escort them to a place of safety, for they are a people who have no knowledge". In fact, the sword verse only refers to those pagan Arabs who violated their peace treaties by waging war against Muslims. If a pagan has not violated treaties or gone to war, he should be left alone even if he wants to remain pagan, because he has "no knowledge" about treaties and wars.
Other rules pertaining to jihad exist, like the prohibitions on harming those who are not engaged in combat, the prohibitions on killing animals such as horses, and the prohibitions on unnecessary destruction of enemy property.
In the modern era, the notion of jihad has lost its jurisprudential relevance and instead given rise to an ideological and political discourse. While modernist Islamic scholars have emphasized the defensive and non-military aspects of jihad, Islamists have advanced aggressive interpretations that go beyond the classical theory. The term has gained additional attention in recent decades through its use by various insurgent Islamic extremist, militant Islamist, terrorist individuals and organizations.
Just a thought: how difficult can it be to convince a group of Muslims that they are victims of a system that does not agree with every single word written in the Quran? If the victims defend themselves with violence, and the system reacts with prejudice against all Muslims, how difficult will it be to convince another group of Muslims that they are victims of the system?